The AP EAMCET (EAPCET) 2025 syllabus will be updated here once released by the official authority. Candidates are advised to review the syllabus before starting their preparation. It provides a subject-wise breakdown of important topics and chapters relevant to the exam.

• The engineering paper includes questions from Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry.
• The agriculture paper covers Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, and Physics.

AP EAMCET 2025 Exam Details:

• The exam is conducted online in English and Telugu.
• It will be held in two sessions for engineering and agriculture streams.
• The question paper consists of 160 questions in total.

AP EAMCET 2025 Syllabus: Physics (For MPC & BiPC)

PHYSICAL WORLD

• Definition of Physics, its scope, and significance
• Fundamental forces in nature
• Relationship between physics, technology, and society

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

• SI Units and their applications
• Length, mass, and time measurements
• Accuracy, precision, and errors in measurements
• Dimensional analysis and its applications

MOTION IN A PLANE

• Scalars and vectors, vector addition, and subtraction
• Motion in a plane with constant acceleration
• Projectile motion, circular motion, and relative velocity

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

• Position, displacement, speed, and velocity
• Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion

LAWS OF MOTION

• Newton’s Laws of Motion and their applications
• Friction: types, laws, and effects
• Motion of vehicles on level and banked roads

WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

• Work-energy theorem
• Kinetic and potential energy
• Conservation of energy and types of collisions

OSCILLATIONS

• Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Energy in SHM, oscillations due to a spring
• Damped and forced oscillations, resonance

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

• Center of mass and its motion
• Angular velocity, torque, moment of inertia
• Conservation of angular momentum and rolling motion

GRAVITATION

• Newton’s law of universal gravitation
• Acceleration due to gravity and its variation
• Orbital motion, geostationary satellites, weightlessness

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

• Stress-strain relationship, Hooke’s law
• Elastic moduli and their applications

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

• Pascal’s Law, Bernoulli’s theorem
• Surface tension, viscosity, and Stokes’ Law

THERMODYNAMICS

• Laws of thermodynamics
• Heat, internal energy, and work
• Carnot engine and thermodynamic cycles

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• Heat transfer, thermal expansion
• Newton’s law of cooling

KINETIC THEORY

• Kinetic interpretation of temperature
• Law of equipartition of energy
• Mean free path of gas molecules

WAVES

• Types of waves: longitudinal and transverse
• Superposition principle, standing waves, beats

WAVE OPTICS

• Huygens’ principle, Young’s double-slit experiment
• Interference and diffraction

RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

• Reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection
• Lenses, microscopes, and telescopes

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

• Coulomb’s law, electric field, and field lines
• Gauss’s law and its applications

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

• Electrostatic potential energy
• Capacitors and their combinations

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

• Ohm’s Law, resistivity, and conductivity
• Kirchhoff’s laws and their applications

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

• Magnetic force on a moving charge
• Ampere’s law, Biot-Savart law, and solenoids

MAGNETISM AND MATTER

• Earth’s magnetism, magnetic field lines

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Faraday’s laws, Lenz’s law
• Inductance and eddy currents

ALTERNATING CURRENT

• AC circuits, phasors, resonance
• Transformers and power distribution

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• Electromagnetic spectrum and wave propagation

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

• Photoelectric effect, Einstein’s equation
• Wave-particle duality

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

• Rutherford and Bohr’s atomic models
• Nuclear structure, fusion, and fission

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

• Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors
• Diodes, transistors, and logic gates

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

• Modulation, signal transmission, and bandwidth

This syllabus outlines the key concepts covered in AP EAMCET 2025 Physics for both MPC and BiPC streams.

AP EAMCET 2025 Chemistry Syllabus (For MPC and BiPC Streams)

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Advancements in Bohr’s atomic model; Wave-particle duality of electromagnetic radiation; Planck’s quantum theory; Bohr’s Hydrogen atom model; Explanation of Hydrogen’s spectral lines; Limitations of Bohr’s theory; Quantum mechanical approach to subatomic particles; Dual nature of matter; Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle; Quantum mechanical model of the atom—its key features; Orbitals and quantum numbers; Atomic orbital shapes and energy levels; Electron filling rules: Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, and Hund’s Rule; Electronic configurations and stability of half-filled and fully filled orbitals.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY

Modern periodic law and the current periodic table structure; Nomenclature for elements beyond atomic number 100; Electronic configuration trends; Classification of elements into s, p, d, and f blocks; Physical property trends—atomic and ionic radii, inner transition element size variation, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, and electronegativity; Chemical property trends—oxidation states and valency, anomalous properties of second-period elements, diagonal relationships, and periodic reactivity trends.

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Kossel-Lewis approach; Octet rule and its limitations; Representation of molecules using Lewis structures; Formal charges; Ionic bonding—factors influencing formation, NaCl crystal structure, and properties; Bond parameters (length, angle, enthalpy, order, resonance, and dipole moment); Fajan’s rules; VSEPR theory for molecular geometry prediction; Valence bond theory—orbital overlap and bond strength; Hybridization concepts; Coordinate bonding; Molecular orbital theory—LCAO, energy diagrams for homonuclear diatomic molecules (H₂, He₂, Li₂, B₂, C₂, N₂, O₂); Hydrogen bonding—types and properties.

STATES OF MATTER: GASES AND LIQUIDS

Intermolecular forces vs. thermal energy; Gas laws; Ideal gas equation; Graham’s law of diffusion; Dalton’s law of partial pressures; Kinetic theory of gases and deductions from the kinetic equation; Real gases—deviation from ideal behavior, compressibility factor, and pressure relations.

STOICHIOMETRY

Laws of chemical combination—conservation of mass, definite proportions, and multiple proportions; Atomic and molecular masses; Mole concept; Equivalent weight; Empirical and molecular formulae calculations; Limiting reagent; Solution concentration expressions—mass percent, mole fraction, molarity, molality, normality; Redox reactions—classical and electron transfer approach, oxidation number concept, types of redox reactions, balancing redox equations.

THERMODYNAMICS

Basic terms; Types of systems and surroundings; Internal energy as a state function—work and heat; First law of thermodynamics and applications; Enthalpy; Extensive and intensive properties; Cp and Cv relationship; Measurement of ∆U and ∆H; Calorimetry; Standard enthalpies—reaction, formation, combustion, atomization, sublimation, bond enthalpy, solution, dilution, and lattice enthalpy; Spontaneity criteria—enthalpy vs. entropy; Gibbs free energy; Third law of thermodynamics.

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ACIDS-BASES

Dynamic equilibrium in physical and chemical processes; Law of mass action and equilibrium constants; Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria; KP-Kc relationship; Le Chatelier’s principle and industrial applications (Ammonia, Sulphur trioxide synthesis); Ionic equilibrium; Acid-base theories—Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis; Ionization of acids and bases; pH scale; Common ion effect; Buffer solutions; Solubility product and common ion effect on solubility.

HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Periodic position; Isotopes; Hydride classification—ionic, covalent, and non-stoichiometric; Water—structure, properties, hardness (temporary and permanent); Heavy water; Hydrogen as fuel.

s-BLOCK ELEMENTS (ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS)

Group 1 and Group 2 elements—electronic configuration, trends in atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, hydration enthalpy, chemical properties, and uses; Compound properties—oxides, halides, and oxo salts; Anomalous behavior of lithium and beryllium; Diagonal relationships (Li-Mg, Be-Al); Important compounds—Sodium chloride, Calcium hydroxide, Plaster of Paris, Cement.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS (GROUP 13 & 14)

Group 13 (Boron family) and Group 14 (Carbon family)—electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties, anomalous behavior of boron and carbon; Allotropes of carbon; Uses of boron, aluminum, and carbon.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BASICS & HYDROCARBONS

Carbon’s tetravalency; Structural representation; Nomenclature and classification; Isomerism; Organic reaction mechanisms—nucleophiles, electrophiles, bond fission, inductive/resonance effects; Hydrocarbons—classification, preparation, reactions of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, benzene; Markovnikov’s and anti-Markovnikov’s rule; Electrophilic substitution in benzene; Carcinogenicity and toxicity.

SOLID STATE

Crystalline vs. amorphous solids; X-ray crystallography; Unit cells and lattices; Close packing; Density and unit cell dimensions; Point defects—stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric.

SOLUTIONS

Types of solutions; Concentration expressions; Henry’s law; Raoult’s law; Ideal vs. non-ideal solutions; Colligative properties—relative lowering of vapor pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure; Reverse osmosis.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY & CHEMICAL KINETICS

Electrochemical cells; Nernst equation; Conductance; Kohlrausch’s law; Electrolysis and Faraday’s laws; Reaction rate concepts—order and molecularity, integrated rate equations, pseudo first-order reactions; Arrhenius equation; Catalysis effects.

SURFACE CHEMISTRY

Adsorption types and isotherms; Colloidal solutions—classification, properties, purification, Brownian motion, Tyndall effect, electrophoresis; Coagulation and protection of colloids; Industrial applications.

p-BLOCK ELEMENTS (GROUP 15-18)

Group 15 (Nitrogen family): Occurrence, properties, dinitrogen preparation and uses, ammonia, nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen.
Group 16 (Oxygen family): Occurrence, properties, dioxygen preparation and uses, oxoacids, sulfuric acid, allotropes of sulfur.
Group 17 (Halogens): Properties, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, oxoacids, interhalogen compounds.
Group 18 (Noble gases): Properties, xenon-fluorine and xenon-oxygen compounds.

d & f BLOCK ELEMENTS & COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Transition elements—general properties, oxidation states, colored ions, catalytic properties, alloy formation; Lanthanoids—properties and applications; Coordination compounds—Werner’s theory, nomenclature, valence bond theory, crystal field theory, metal carbonyl bonding, applications.

BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates—classification, glucose/fructose structure, disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen); Proteins—amino acids, peptide bonds, structures (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), denaturation; Enzymes—mechanism and factors affecting enzyme activity; Vitamins—classification and deficiency effects; Nucleic acids—structure of DNA and RNA.

AP EAPCET 2025 Syllabus: Mathematics (MPC)

ALGEBRA

a) Functions: Types, definitions, and real-valued functions (domain and range).

b) Matrices: Types, scalar multiplication, matrix multiplication, transpose, determinants (excluding properties), adjoint, inverse, rank, and solving simultaneous linear equations (excluding Gauss-Jordan method).

c) Complex Numbers: Representation as ordered pairs, fundamental operations, modulus, amplitude, Argand plane representation, and polar form (excluding square roots of complex numbers).

d) De Moivre’s Theorem: Integral and rational indices, nth roots of unity, and geometric interpretations.

e) Quadratic Expressions: Equations in one variable, sign changes, and maximum/minimum values.

f) Theory of Equations: Relationship between roots and coefficients, solving equations with connected roots, real coefficient equations, and occurrence of complex roots in conjugate pairs.

g) Permutations and Combinations: Fundamental principle of counting, linear and circular permutations, constraints, and combinations (excluding derivation of formulas for nPr and nCr).

h) Partial Fractions: Decomposition into non-repeated/repeated linear factors and irreducible factors (excluding power series conversion).

TRIGONOMETRY

a) Trigonometric Ratios and Transformations: Graphs, periodicity, multiple/sub-multiple angles, sum and product rules.

b) Hyperbolic Functions: Definitions, graphs, inverse functions, and addition formulas.

c) Properties of Triangles: Relations between sides and angles, sine, cosine, tangent, projection rules, half-angle formulas, and areas (excluding height and distance problems).

MEASURES OF DISPERSION & PROBABILITY

a) Measures of Dispersion: Range, mean deviation, variance, and standard deviation (grouped and ungrouped data).

b) Probability: Classical and axiomatic definitions, addition theorem, independent and dependent events, conditional probability, multiplication theorem, and Bayes’ theorem.

c) Random Variables & Distributions: Random variables, binomial and Poisson distributions.

VECTOR ALGEBRA

a) Vector Addition: Triad representation, classification, addition, scalar multiplication, linear combinations, components, and equations of lines/planes.

b) Vector Products: Scalar and vector products, orthogonal projections, properties, dot product in i, j, k notation, angles, vector equations of planes, and vector areas.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

a) Locus: Definition, finding equations, and related problems.

b) The Straight Line: Normal form, symmetric form, various equations, intersection, concurrency conditions, perpendicular distances, and angles between lines.

c) Pair of Straight Lines: Equations through origin, perpendicular/coincident conditions, bisectors, second-degree equations, and homogenization.

d) Circle: Standard equation, properties, parametric equations, tangents, chords, power of a point, pole-polar relationships, and common chords.

e) System of Circles: Angle between circles, radical axis, common tangents, and radical center.

f) Parabola: Standard and parametric equations, different forms.

g) Ellipse: Standard equation and parametric form.

h) Hyperbola: Standard equation, parametric form, tangents, normals, and asymptotes.

i) 3D Coordinates: Section formula, centroid of triangles and tetrahedrons.

j) Direction Cosines & Ratios: Definitions (excluding angle between two lines).

k) Plane: Cartesian equation and simple illustrations (excluding angles between planes).

CALCULUS

a) Limits & Continuity: Intervals, neighborhoods, standard limits, and continuity.

b) Differentiation: Definition, elementary properties, trigonometric and hyperbolic derivatives, methods, and second-order derivatives.

c) Applications of Derivatives: Tangents/normals, curve angles, orthogonality conditions, increasing/decreasing functions, maxima, and minima.

d) Integration: Inverse process of differentiation, standard forms, substitution, integration of algebraic/exponential/logarithmic/trigonometric functions (excluding specific integral forms), integration by parts, and reduction formulas.

e) Definite Integrals: Fundamental theorem, properties, and reduction formulas.

f) Differential Equations: Degree, order, solutions via variable separation, homogeneous equations, and linear differential equations (excluding dx/dy + P = Q form where P, Q depend only on y).

AP EAPCET 2025 Syllabus: Botany (BiPC Stream)

DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

• The Living World: Definition of living organisms, diversity in life forms, and taxonomic categories.
• Biological Classification: Overview of Kingdoms Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia; six-kingdom classification; Viruses, Viroids, Prions, and Lichens.
• Science of Plants – Botany: Origin, development, scope, and branches of botany.
• Plant Kingdom: Characteristics of Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, and Gymnosperms.

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS – MORPHOLOGY

• Morphology of Flowering Plants: Structure and functions of the root, stem, inflorescence, and flower.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants: Pre-fertilization structures and events, pollination, pollen-pistil interaction, double fertilization, post-fertilization structures and events, apomixis, and polyembryony.

PLANT SYSTEMATICS

• Taxonomy of Angiosperms: Classification systems, types of classification, semi-technical description of a typical flowering plant, and study of families Solanaceae and Liliaceae.

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Cell – The Unit of Life: Definition of a cell, cell theory, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Biomolecules: Chemical composition, primary and secondary metabolites, biomacromolecules, proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, protein structure, polymer bonding, metabolism, and the concept of the living state.
• Cell Cycle and Cell Division: Phases of the cell cycle, mitosis and its significance, meiosis and its importance.

INTERNAL ORGANISATION OF PLANTS

• Histology and Anatomy: Structural differences between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants.

PLANT ECOLOGY

• Ecological Adaptations, Succession, and Services: Plant communities, ecological adaptations, succession, and ecosystem services.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

• Transport in Plants: Mechanisms of transport, plant-water relationships, long-distance water transport, transpiration, mineral uptake and transport, phloem transport, and source-to-sink movement.
• Enzymes: Chemical reactions, enzymatic functions, enzyme activity factors, classification, nomenclature, and co-factors.
• Photosynthesis in Higher Plants: Early experiments, site of photosynthesis, involved pigments, light reactions, electron transport, ATP and NADPH usage, C4 pathway, photorespiration, and factors influencing photosynthesis.
• Respiration in Plants: Glycolysis, fermentation, aerobic respiration, respiratory balance sheet, amphibolic pathway, and respiratory quotient.
• Plant Growth and Development: Role of plant growth regulators.

MICROBIOLOGY

• Bacteria: Morphology, cell structure, nutrition, reproduction, and their significance to humans.
• Viruses: Discovery, classification, structure, bacteriophage multiplication, viral diseases in plants and humans.

GENETICS

• Principles of Inheritance and Variation: Mendelian experiments, monohybrid and dihybrid inheritance, deviations from Mendelian dominance, chromosomal theory of inheritance, linkage, recombination, and mutations.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

• Molecular Basis of Inheritance: DNA structure, search for genetic material, RNA world, replication, transcription, genetic code, translation, and gene expression regulation.

BIOTECHNOLOGY

• Principles and Processes of Biotechnology: Basic principles, recombinant DNA technology tools and processes.
• Applications of Biotechnology: Agricultural and industrial applications, transgenic plants, bio-safety, and ethical concerns.

PLANTS, MICROBES, AND HUMAN WELFARE

• Food Production Enhancement Strategies: Plant breeding and tissue culture.
• Microbes in Human Welfare: Role of microbes in household products, industrial processes, sewage treatment, biogas production, biocontrol, biofertilizers, and challenges posed by microbes.

AP EAPCET 2025 Syllabus: Zoology (BiPC Stream)

DIVERSITY OF THE LIVING WORLD

• Fundamentals of Zoology: Definition of life, nature, scope, and significance of zoology; branches of zoology.
• Biological Classification: Importance of classification; zoos as tools for taxonomy; phylogenetic classification principles; hierarchical levels of classification.
• Nomenclature & Species Concept: Binomial and trinomial nomenclature; species classification.
• Kingdom Animalia: Overview of biodiversity—genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity (alpha, beta, and gamma diversity); attributes and roles of biodiversity; threats and conservation methods.
• Conservation & Legislation: IUCN Red Data Books; wildlife conservation laws in India; organizations working for preservation; threatened species.

STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN ANIMALS

• Levels of Organization: Multicellularity—diploblastic and triploblastic conditions; body symmetry—radial and bilateral (examples from representative phyla).
• Coelom Development: Acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, and eucoelomates; schizocoelomates vs. enterocoelomates.
• Animal Tissues: Structure and function of epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissues.

ANIMAL DIVERSITY – INVERTEBRATES

• General Characteristics & Classification: Overview of major invertebrate phyla, classified up to the class level with key examples.
• Phyla Covered: Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida (including Earthworm as a type study), Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Hemichordata.

LOCOMOTION & REPRODUCTION IN PROTOZOA

• Locomotion in Protozoa: Types and structures—pseudopodia, flagella, and cilia (examples included); flagellar and ciliary movement mechanisms in Euglena and Paramecium.
• Reproduction in Protozoa: Asexual reproduction—transverse binary fission in Paramecium, longitudinal binary fission in Euglena, multiple fission; sexual reproduction.

BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE

• Parasitism & Adaptations: Characteristics of parasites, adaptations to a parasitic lifestyle.
• Human Health & Diseases: Pathogen life cycles, pathogenicity, treatment, and prevention for:
  • Entamoeba histolytica
  • Plasmodium vivax
  • Ascaris lumbricoides
  • Wuchereria bancrofti
• Common Diseases: Brief details on typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, and ringworm.
• Substance Abuse: Effects and risks of tobacco, drugs, and alcohol consumption.

ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

• Fundamental Concepts: Definitions of ecology, population, community, habitat, niche, biome, and ecosphere.
• Ecosystem: Elementary aspects; abiotic factors (light, temperature, water) and their biological effects.
• Population Ecology: Interactions, attributes (growth, natality, mortality, age distribution), and regulatory mechanisms.

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY – I

• Respiratory System: Respiratory organs across animals; human respiratory system—mechanism, gas exchange, regulation, transport, and respiratory volumes.
• Respiratory Disorders: Asthma, emphysema, occupational respiratory diseases (asbestosis, silicosis, siderosis, black lung disease in coal miners).

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY – II

• Circulatory System:
  • Body Fluids & Circulation: Lymphatic system, blood clotting, circulatory pathways.
  • Human Circulatory System: Heart and blood vessel structure, cardiac cycle, cardiac output, double circulation, regulation of cardiac activity.
  • Circulatory Disorders: Hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, heart failure.
• Excretory System:
  • Modes of Excretion: Ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism.
  • Human Excretory System: Kidney and nephron structure, urine formation, osmoregulation.
  • Regulation: Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system, Atrial Natriuretic Factor, ADH, diabetes insipidus.
  • Excretory Disorders: Uraemia, renal failure, kidney stones, nephritis, dialysis using artificial kidney.

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY – III

• Muscular System: Ultrastructure of muscles, contractile proteins, mechanism of muscle contraction.
• Nervous System: Structure and function of the central, peripheral, and visceral nervous systems; nerve impulse generation and conduction.

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY – IV

• Endocrine System:
  • Major endocrine glands—hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads.
  • Hormone functions, mechanism of action, regulatory roles.
  • Disorders: Dwarfism, acromegaly, cretinism, goiter, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes, Addison’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome.
• Immune System:
  • Types of immunity—innate vs. acquired, active vs. passive, cell-mediated vs. humoral immunity.
  • Vaccination and immunization.
  • Immunological disorders, HIV, and AIDS.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

• Reproductive System: Male and female reproductive anatomy; microscopic structure of testes and ovaries.
• Gametogenesis: Spermatogenesis, oogenesis, menstrual cycle.
• Fertilization & Development: Gastrulation, blastocyst formation, implantation, pregnancy, placental formation, parturition, lactation.
• Reproductive Health: Importance of reproductive health; sexually transmitted diseases (STDs); contraception, medical termination of pregnancy (MTP), amniocentesis, infertility treatments (IVF-ET, ZIFT, GIFT).

GENETICS

• Heredity & Variations: Mendelian inheritance laws with examples (Drosophila melanogaster body color & wing types).
• Genetic Concepts: Pleiotropy, multiple alleles, blood group inheritance, Rh factor, co-dominance, polygenic inheritance (e.g., human skin color).
• Sex Determination: Mechanisms in humans, birds, Drosophila; genic balance theory; haplodiploidy in honeybees.
• Genetic Disorders:
  • Sex-linked Inheritance: Hemophilia, color blindness.
  • Mendelian Disorders: Thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria, alkaptonuria.
  • Chromosomal Disorders: Down syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome.
• Advanced Genetics: Human genome project, DNA fingerprinting.

APPLIED BIOLOGY

• Biomedical Applications: Role of vaccines, gene therapy, molecular diagnosis.
• Transgenic Animals: Applications and ethical concerns.
• Medical Technology: ELISA, monoclonal antibodies (MABs), cancer biology, stem cell research.
• Diagnostic Imaging: X-ray, CT scan, MRI, ECG, EEG.